Mais les résultats doivent être attendus longtemps et il n'y a généralement pas de temps doxycycline prix L'autre cas, c'est que l'achat d'un ou d'un autre antibiotique dans une pharmacie classique nécessite des dépenses matérielles considérables et pas toutes les personnes ne peuvent acheter des produits pharmaceutiques aussi coûteux.
Herald1301005dubrovskiilo.fm
ISSN 1019 3316, Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2013, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 59–69. Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2013. Original Russian Text D.I. Dubrovskii, 2013, published in Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 2013, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 45–57.
States of consciousness—subjective reality—form the direct experience of any person. As is known, we haveconsciousness thanks to the functioning of the human brain. Yet how do material processes transfer to idealforms in which our subjective reality exists? How did this human ability appear? Despite long interest in thisproblem, science is still unable to give a satisfactory description and explanation of this phenomenon. Suchan attempt is made in the article below. DOI: 10.1134/S101933161301005X Subjective Reality and the Brain: An Essay on a Theoretical Solution to the Problem D. I. Dubrovskii*
The presence of subjective reality, i.e., states that an
ious descriptions into a single conceptual system capa
individual feels and that prove that an individual exists,
ble of a theoretically justified explanation for the cor
is a specific and integral quality inherent in human
relation of SR phenomena with brain processes. How
beings. This quality is designated in the literature by dif
ever, it is still unclear how to find this link and thus
ferent terms that are close in meaning: mental, introspective, phenomenal, subjective experience, qualia, etc.
There is also another problem: subjective reality in
In recent decades, the term subjective reality (SR) has
itself is an internal and individually subjective experi
been used quite widely to describe the specifics of con
ence inherent only in a given individual (expressed in
1 sciousness. This trend seems promising also in the tide
first person reports). How do we transfer from this
way of the consciousness–brain problem, since, when
individually subjective experience to intersubjective 5
this problem is called the subjective reality–brain prob
and generally valid (third person) statements and to
lem, its main content is emphasized. In this article, the
above notions will be used as equivalent.
These questions have been raised many times and
The SR notion covers individual phenomena and
have been solved differently from different positions,
their types (sensations, perceptions, feelings, thoughts,
but, in the light of the current urgent problems, they
2 intentions, wishes, conations, etc.), as well as a holistic
continue to be open. This situation becomes especially
formation united by our ego with all its reflexive and
acute in fields of neuroscience that are meant to study
3 areflexic dimensions. This holistic formation repre
psychic activity and conscious phenomena and that do
sents a historically evolving continuum interrupted
not admit reductive solutions (concepts that try to
from time to time by deep sleep or cases of fainting.
reduce SR phenomena to physical processes and
Subjective reality is always a certain content given to an
individual as the current present or now, which canbelong to the past and to the future.
The consciousness–brain problem should be dif
ferentiated from a psychophysical problem that 6
The specificity of SR phenomena that differenti
expresses generally the relationship between the spiri
ates them from objects examined by classical natural
tual and the physical (corporal). Philosophy does not
science is that we cannot ascribe physical properties to
study the brain. Neuroscience and numerous related
them. Hence, there is a claim to being of a special
disciplines deal with it. However, consciousness is a
ontological status, the definition of which has always
primordial subject of philosophy. Therefore, the prob
been a problem for scientists, especially for those who
lem that interests us certainly includes the philosoph
4 study the relationship between psychical phenomena
ical background, to say nothing of the necessary thor
and activities of the human brain. The point is that SR
ough epistemological and methodological analysis
phenomena are described by the notions of intention
when stating and solving its main questions.
ality, purpose, sense, value, and will, while physical
Science has extensive resources to study conscious
phenomena and brain processes are described by the
ness; it has accumulated a vast experience that needs
notions of mass, energy, and spatial characteristics,
conceptualization (we mean data on psychology, psy
and these notional complexes have no direct logical
chiatry, linguistics, informatics, social humanities,
relations. We need a certain notional link to unite var
and cognitive disciplines, and many other fields of science, especially those of interdisciplinary nature, such
* David Izrailevich Dubrovskii, Dr. Sci. (Philos.), is chief
research fellow at the RAS Institute of Philosophy.
as psychophysiology, psychopharmocology, psychoge
7 netics, and psycholinguistics). Simultaneously, the
We acknowledge three initial premises, the first two of
8 role of scientific knowledge that is called metatheoret
which are principles with no empirical refutations, and
ical (metascientific and general scientific) has been
the third one is an intuitively acceptable agreement.
increasing in recent decades. It is represented by the
• Information is necessarily incorporated in its physi
ideas of functionalism and structuralism, system and
cal medium (does not exist outside and apart from it).
information approaches, and several other theoriesthat have a wide sphere of application. Conceptual
• Information is invariant in relation to the physical
tools of this level can be used in practically all scientific
properties of its medium (for short, the invariance prin
disciplines, performing an integrating function in
ciple); i.e., the same information for a given self orga
interdisciplinary studies. Therefore, they are of pri
nizing system (organism, human being, or commu
mary importance for the development of the con
nity) can be implemented and transferred by media
sciousness–brain problem, which is an interdiscipli
that are different in their physical properties; in other
nary (I would even say, transdisciplinary) scientific
words, information can be coded differently. For
challenge. Its theoretical solution should, on the one
example, information about rain being expected
hand, rest on an empirical basis, and, on the other, it is
tomorrow can be transmitted in different languages,
capable of initiating new trends and methods and,
orally, in writing, in Morse code, etc.; in all these
consequently, new results in brain and psychic studies.
cases, the media of the same information differ inmass, energy, spatiotemporal, and other physical char
This solution primarily requires theoretically justi
• An SR phenomenon (for example, my sensory
Question 1. How can we explain the relationship
image of visually perceived object A, experienced in a
between SR phenomena and brain processes if the
given time interval) can be considered information
former should not be ascribed physical properties and
(about this object). Note that information admits not
only a synthetic but also a semantic (content–
Question 2. If SR phenomena should not be
notional) and a pragmatic (purposeful, effective, pro
ascribed physical properties, how can we explain their
gram controlled) description, which meets the
ability to cause effects on corporal processes?
requirements of the description of SR phenomena.
In addition to these main questions, there are sev
If these three initial premises are accepted, the desired
eral others that are usually stumbling blocks for natural
explanatory effects are logically derived from them.
scientists. Let us consider the following of them.
Since an SR phenomenon is information about А
Question 3. How can we explain the phenomena of
(we designate it as А), it must have a certain medium
voluntary actions and free will and how can we combine
(we designate it as Х). According to neuroscientific
them with the deterministic nature of brain processes?
data, this medium represents a certain brain neurody
Question 4. How can we explain the origin of SR
namic system. Thus, the phenomenon of subjective
itself in the process of evolution? At first sight, it seems
reality is necessarily related to a corresponding brain
unnecessary for efficient functioning of an organism.
process, like information with its medium. Althoughneurodynamic system Х necessarily consists of physi
Question 5. Why is information about an active
cal components, its functional specifics cannot be
agent not just represented but felt as subjective reality?
explained on the basis of physical properties and regu
Note that the last three questions are of a private
larities (because, as is known, the description of func
nature in the sense that their clarification depends on
tional relations is logically independent of the descrip
tion of physical relations). This is also shown by thecharacter of the necessary relation between А and Х.
The relation between А and Х is not causative; this
is a special type of functional relation: А and Х aresimultaneous and single causative phenomena; they
The theory that I propose and that will allow us to
are in a relation of mutual single valued correspon
answer the above questions rests on the current knowl
dence; Х is a coded implementation of А, or an А code.
edge of biological evolution and (biological and social,
This relation may be called code dependency. It is
including technical) self organization processes, as well
formed in the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of a self
as the information approach. It is organized relatively
organizing system, and its nature is that of a historical
clearly and simply, thus being convenient for criticism.
innovation and in this sense is casual (this informationhas acquired this particular code implementation in a
1 Note that the notion of information has a generally accepted defi
given self organizing system, but, in principle, it could
nition, and I use it in the sense in which it is used practically by all
also have another implementation). However, having
sciences, namely, as the content of a message or the content of asignal (N. Wiener’s definitions). Therefore, there is no need to go
arisen in a certain form, it becomes a functional ele
into its various interpretations here; they are presented in [1].
ment of the self organization process. This relation is
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
real, preserving its functional role either in a one time
• Natural: Information implemented in them is
action or in a certain interval (for example, a condi
directly understandable to the self organizing system
tioned reflex relation), often during the whole life of
to which it is addressed; that is, it can be used directly
an individual, and even during the whole history of a
for control without preliminary decoding operations,
species, and during the whole period of existence of
and without studying the signal structure, or without a
living systems on the earth in the case of the basic
special analysis of the medium of this information. In
DNA code. Yet even the origin of a genetic code was
other words, a natural code carries information in a
not necessary and also was of a casual nature. As F.
Crick, the codiscoverer of the genetic code, indicated,
• Alien: Information implemented in them is not
it could have practically any structure, because its
directly understandable and cannot be perceived and
details depend on which particular amino acid and
used by a self organizing system without the preliminary
which particular adaptor correspond to each other.
operation of translating an alien code into a natural one.
Most likely, the existing option of this mutual correspondence was determined at a very early stage of evo
It is important to note that cryptology, as well as
lution, and, possibly, the choice in its favor was acci
contemporary science after it, does not use the term
dental [2]. This is even more characteristic of the ori
code to designate objects that we call natural codes
gin of the code structure of language (the existence of
(owing to their transparency). However, the approach
many different languages testifies to this). The acci
that I propose and the concept of decoding the brain
dental nature of the formation of a code dependency
codes of SR phenomena [3, 4] rest on a wider theoret
does not contradict the principle of the necessary rela
ical foundation compared to that in classical cryptol
tion between information and its medium but demon
ogy, which uses a narrow interpretation of the notion
strates the principle of invariance in action. In addi
of a code. The development and justification of this
tion, evolution inevitably selects code forms that are
question are given in my work [5, pp. 214–273].
the most economical by their physical characteristics.
A way to translate an alien code into a natural one
is either preprogrammed initially into the structure of 9
A complex system that consists of self organizing
a self organizing system, or formed by it due to its
elements and subsystems has a multistep hierarchy of
acquired experience and as a result of accidental find
code dependencies, which reflect its history (both
ings, or it remains unknown and should be found.
phylogenetically and ontogenetically). This hierarchy
Examples of such a search can be given by cryptology,
represents the main levels and nodes of organization of
linguistics, ethnography, and other sciences that face
a given system and, consequently, the main contours
of the control structure. Experience in the study ofsuch systems indicates very complex relations of cen
Both natural and alien codes can be internal and
tralization and autonomy in their holistic functioning. external for a given self organizing system (an organ
Despite the fact that these relations are still not well
ism, its subsystems, a person, or a community).
studied, it is safe to say that this is a sort of a fusion of
Apparently, alien codes are mainly external. However,
a hierarchical centralization of code dependencies and
at the personal level, they also appear in autocommu
a high degree autonomy of certain levels of organiza
nication processes, where internal alien codes mani
tion, which includes not only cooperative but also
fest themselves as incomprehensible and often nega
competitive relations. Thus, self organization is a
tive feelings and symptoms, which originate from the
multidimensional dynamic structure of code depen
unconscious and somatic sphere; this is also true of
dencies (consequently, information processes), and,
therefore, the study of the nature of code dependency
Note a seemingly paradoxical situation: an Х type
as an element of self organization is especially urgent.
code is an internal natural code for me in the sense thatit directly opens to me the information contained in it
The relation between SR and a neurodynamic system
(the is an А image), and it is decoded in my brain
as its medium, like any code dependency, differs qualita
seemingly automatically. At the same time, it is an
tively from a physical relation and expresses the specifics
external alien code for me in the sense that I do not
of information processes. Therefore, a thorough study of
know anything about its location in my brain or its
this relation, as well as of the structural and functional
composition and functional structure; moreover, I do
organization of the corresponding system, means decod
not feel at all what happens in my brain when I feel
ing the brain code of this SR phenomenon.
image А. In other words, SR phenomena give me
However, what is a decoding operation if informa
information in its pure form, shutting out information
tion is necessarily implemented in a certain medium,
about its medium. Implementing cognitive processes,
and the latter is always one code implementation or
we seek information of interest to us, which is given to
another? This operation may be only the translation of
us as a natural code. In many cases, we are unaware of
one code into another: incomprehensible for a given
the setup of natural codes, but this does not prevent us
self organizing system into comprehensible. There
from translating alien codes into natural ones at the
fore, we should distinguish two code types:
SR level. Such translation, developed in phylogenesis
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
or ontogenesis, is implemented automatically by
specifics of the brain substrate, brain elements, synap
unconscious mechanisms of the psyche.
tic relations, and morphological structures). Here we
Such code transformations that we constantly per
should add that any translation of information into
form are so immanent in our practical and communi
another language entails some losses of the initial con
cative acts that we simply do not notice them—this is
tent (an issue of special analysis).
the air of our social functions. However, to understand
In the real process of studying code dependencies,
the specific dependence of А on Х, we have to know the
the direct and reciprocal problems are interrelated.
composition of the latter and to decode its code struc
Nevertheless, the reciprocal problem, or the move
ture like we have to do when learning a previously
ment from А to unknown neurodynamic correlations
10 unknown language. Let us note here the idea of autocerebroscope, according to which I myself can observe
that, to a certain degree, should correspond to Х, dom
and study the relation between my psychic and brain
inates the decoding of the neurodynamic code of psy
processes. In the modern conditions, it may have a
chic phenomena. Modern neuroscience sets and stud
certain experimental perspective. Even in this case,
ies correlations with various methods (electroenceph
despite my feeling А in its pure form, I would have to
alography, electromyography, positron emission, and
obtain А (its content) in a way that is also accessible for
functional magnetic resonance tomography). At the
an outside observer. Thus, Х, being an alien code for
same time, the correlates identified are related only
me and for all of us, must become a special object of
indirectly to Х, which is an extremely complex multi
research in order to decode it and bring to light the А
dimensional circular neurodynamic network system,
information contained in it independently, that is, by
and the building of adequate models of a code depen
extracting signals from my brain and translating Х into
dency requires special analysis and interpretation
a suitable natural code (as a text, image, digital record
ing, etc., understandable to me). This, in turn, can
Over the past five years, important results have been
ensure the understanding of the results of the Х code
obtained in decoding the brain codes of visual percep
decoding by other researchers and other people, that
tions not only for static and comparatively simple
5 is, its intersubjective status. Thus, it is possible to speak
black and white visual images [7] but also for moving
about the possibility of generating a new type of com
color images—a movie fragment perceived by a test
munication, which must become a subject of serious
subject (corresponding images felt by the testee were
displayed on a computer screen as the result of the
If the brain codes of SR phenomena are thoroughly
analysis and synthesis of elements of their brain corre
decoded, this will disturb the fundamental principle of
lates obtained mainly with the method of functional
social self organization—the relative autonomy or
magnetic resonance tomography (FMRT)) [8]. This
11 “closedness” of the personal subjective world. What
area of neuroscience, which is developing very rapidly,
consequences await us if this world is opened in spite
is called brain reading, but we can offer a more correct
of the will of its sovereign, if some become open and
name, neurocryptology. Its objective is to decode the
others, closed, etc.? Another interesting question is
brain codes of various SR phenomena (not only visual
what will happen with our society and its political,
but also auditory and tactile perceptions, emotions,
economic, and other institutions if people suddenly
voluntary actions, and even thinking) [9], and it
become open (which means, for example, that no one
acquires strategic importance for the creation of prin
cipally new brain–machine interfaces and for the
During the study of the А – Х dependence, two
development of cognitive technologies. However, it isimpossible to improve the efficiency of this area with
The direct one is when it is necessary to translate an
out a fundamental phenomenological development of
alien code into a natural one and to find out the informa
the objects of code decoding—SR phenomena. The
tion contained in it. Note that, in the case of Х objects,difficulties arise in retrieving and describing them, to say
2 I would like to say (although this is not quite correct on my part)
nothing of finding ways to decode them and implement
that the theoretical and methodological program of decoding
the decoding process. (An impressive example of this
the brain codes of psychic phenomena was rolled out on a grand
may be the exceptionally complex creative process of
scale using the information approach in my book publishedmore than 40 years ago [10]. I should stress the importance of
decoding the genetic code described by Crick [2].)
neurophysiological research in this area by N.P. Bekhtereva,
The reciprocal problem is related to decoding a nat
with whom I collaborated closely at that time. This research wasdiscontinued or at least seriously disrupted after the publication
ural code if information is given and it is necessary to
of the slashing review article by N.P. Dubinin in the journal
define its medium and study its functional structure. Communist, an organ of the Central Committee of the Commu
Due to the invariance principle, the reciprocal prob
nist Party of the Soviet Union, who wrote the following about
lem is more complex than the direct one, since this
the decoding of brain codes: “here is a pretense to make recommendations from scientific and ideological positions that are
information can have different media (although their
absolutely alien to us,” “it is an open revision of the Marxist–
variety is limited by the brain properties, such as the
Leninist understanding of consciousness” [12, p. 73].
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
current studies do not give them clear definitions,
I developed a way to form personal and interper
13 reducing the efficiency of deliverables in this area.
sonal invariants of a visual pattern and the corresponding neurodynamic media in [10, pp. 284–300]. As for
The formation of an object for decoding requires
the formation of an interpersonal invariant of any SR
the correct discretization of the SR continuum as the
phenomenon, analysis allows us to conclude that any
current present and breaking it down into elements and
individual SR phenomenon that can be recorded
fragments. It is desirable that discretization reach the
(even a quantum of sensation or perception) and
level of quantification of SR phenomena. This opera
whose neurodynamic correlate is attempted to be
tion may be implemented for comparatively simple
identified proceeds against the state of wakefulness
phenomena (sensations, perceptions, and some emo
experienced by the individual, that is, against the gen
tional states). It implies the minimization of a given
eral SR state. This circumstance, unfortunately, is very
SR phenomenon by content and time. For example, in
often ignored. Here we need to understand the
a tachistoscopic experiment, I perceive a white square
extremely complex and multidimensional value–
against a black background in a dark room in a mini
notional and action–will structure of subjective reality
mal time. This may be called a quantum of visual per
and its self organization, whose core is our Ego.
ception. Let us assume that information А is such an
Therefore, any SR phenomenon taken separately even
SR quantum. Then its medium Х, the unknown code
as its personal invariant always bears the properties of
structure, must be limited to the same time interval. A
this structure to a certain degree and cannot be con
multitude of my perception quanta makes it possible
to form a personal invariant of perception А and, thus,set a corresponding personal invariant Х. Interpersonal
Coding and decoding processes primarily indicate
invariants А and Х can be formed in the same way if
the necessary participation of memory in them and the
various individuals take part in the experiment for this
circular structure of the experienced content of a given
purpose. We need clear and strictly defined invariants
SR phenomenon in a given interval of the currentpresent. These aspects of decoding are of fundamental
of this type to observe the principle of experimental
importance and the subject of special studies [13–16].
repeatability. This refers not only to the invariants of
No less important are the phenomenological proper
various SR phenomena but also to the invariant of any
ties of the object being decoded, which are predeter
SR phenomenon, that is, to the invariant description
mined by the multidimensional dynamic structure of
of a felt state in general and, consequently, to the
subjective reality. Thus, any SR phenomenon reflects
description of specific properties of brain activity and
not only a certain external content but itself as well.
specific information processes that set the presence of
This manifests its irremovable appurtenance to its Ego,
SR in all of us in a given interval (unlike information
a quality that psychiatry calls the sense of belonging and
processes in the brain, which, according to D. Chalm
which is violated only in pathological cases, leading to
depersonalization phenomena, well described by psy
We have sufficient grounds to think that code neu
chiatrists, and usually related derealization phenom
rodynamic systems like Х, which are the media of cer
ena. The unity of “extrareflection” and self reflection
tain SR phenomena, although they include a wide
allows us to assume that the basic dynamic SR struc
spread of elements and properties, nevertheless, have
ture is bimodal; i.e., its main relations, which determine the dynamic integrity of subjective reality, repre
common characteristics that allow us to identify and
sent a unity of the opposite modalities of Ego and non
decode the code of given information (a given SR phe
Ego, which is implemented by their mutual supposi
nomenon). The followers of the opposite point of view
tion and alternating reference [17, pp. 83–116; 18].
usually refer to the fact that an observer deals with sin
Such bimodality, which includes a mechanism of
gle, original, and inimitable phenomena. Yet the
alternating mirrorlike reference, should also be inher
human being always overcomes this abyss of diversity
ent in the neurodynamic organization of the code
one way or another, creating proper invariants! The
structure of any SR phenomenon. Although we are at
necessary conditions of any scientific research are the
distant approaches to an understanding of its arrange
formation of such invariants, which fix the unity in
ment, there is no doubt that this particular feature of
diversity, and their use for the purposes of scientific
any conscious act allows us to explain the phenome
explanation. It is safe to say that this is a common
non of “reflecting a reflection,” which is inherent in
place for a scientist. However, like many simple truths,
it harbors many theoretical difficulties, which affectespecially strongly the formation of clear invariants of
In addition to two integral parameters (memory and
SR phenomena that are offered as objects for decoding
the basic SR structure), we should distinguish another
their brain codes. These difficulties are amplified by
six parameters describing SR phenomena. They may be
the absence of a taxonomy of SR phenomena, draw
called analytical because each of them designates one
backs in their classification, and extremely feeble
“dimension” in the multidimensional dynamic SR
attempts to put their diversity in theoretical order.
structure. Taken together, they create the basic charac
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
teristics of a model that can reflect the major properties
a personal sanction in the structure of SR phenomena
of the code neurodynamic organization.
allows us to assume that the same functional mecha
nism exists in the neurodynamic code organization ofa SR phenomenon under study and to outline ways of
The temporary parameter fixes an isolated SR phe
nomenon in a certain time interval. The corresponding neurodynamic code also functions in the same
The value parameter characterizes the importance
interval, which limits the zone for its search and iden
of the contents of a felt SR phenomenon for a person
and the person’s attitude to it. The value dimension
The content parameter (or, better, the parameter of
has its specifics that cannot be reduced to the true or
contents) means that any SR phenomenon is a reflec
other SR parameters. It is well known that false con
tion and a meaning of something and that it fixes the
cepts may be of an exceptional value for a person and
necessary presence of contents in each interval of the
true concepts, of a very low and even negative value.
current present regardless of the adequacy or inade
The structure of personal value based relations
quacy of these contents and of the fact whether it acts
includes three types: hierarchical (clear division into
as a nonrecurring experience or a personal/interper
higher and lower values, subordination of the lower to
sonal invariant. This parameter points to the func
the higher, and unambiguous choice); peer (numerous
tional mechanism of the neurodynamic organization,
value based intentions that are on the same and
which codes the contents of this SR phenomenon, and
mostly low level, easily interchangeable, and their
aims at its experimental search. This is probably the
choice is either very difficult or, reversely, very simple),
greatest difficulty in the problems of decoding.
and competitive (two incompatible value based inten
Although simple content types of SR phenomena are
tions that require choice; if no choice, a poignant state
reproduced on a computer display by FMRT, we
of ambivalence arises, which, however, can be ousted
should understand that the observable tomogram,
successfully). A value based intention that dominates
being a correlate of the experienced phenomenon,
in a given time interval determined the choice, the
nevertheless, expresses its actual code neurodynamic
decision, and the action. The value parameter denotes
organization very indirectly. Therefore, such studies
a similar specific functional mechanism in the code
may be called only the first step in solving the problem
brain organization of SR phenomena that motivates
of decoding the brain codes of SR phenomena.
various nisus and sanctions (cognitive, emotional, 16painful, etc.).
The formal parameter means that any content of an
SR phenomenon takes a certain form and belongs to a
The pragmatist (intentional–willful) parameter
corresponding class, genus, or species; that is, it is cate
characterizes any SR phenomenon in terms of its
gorized one way or another. When we speak about visual
activity and points to factors such as a projection to the
perception or perception in general, we mean a certain
future, foresight, the definition of objectives and pur
form of existence of sensory images, which organizes
posefulness, the expression of will, and action. This
their colossal diversity. Despite the absence of a scien
parameter expresses an activity vector as a special qual
tific taxonomy of SR phenomena, in most cases, we use
ity that cannot be replaced with any of the above
successfully formal discretizations, developed and sanc
parameters despite a close relation with them, espe
tioned by psychology on the basis of generalizations of
cially with the value parameter. It is important to view
everyday experiences and natural languages (sensation,
activity in its self development as a process of perma
visual perception, perception in general, conception,
nent formation of innovations, including significant
notion, etc.). The formal parameter aims at identifying
changes in its direction and ways of implementation,
functional neurodynamic mechanisms that implement
which ensures the possibility of developing more per
the operations of categorization, classification, general
fect forms of activity. This parameter aims at study of
specific functional mechanisms in brain activity,which maintain activity states and implement them in
The true/false parameter characterizes any SR
various activities, as well as processes of neurodynamic
phenomenon in terms of its adequate reflection of a
self organization, which serves as a necessary factor of
corresponding object. It can be true or false, ambigu
the functioning of the neurodynamic code media of
14 ous or indefinite, but in all cases our basic mindset on
truth and rightness remains. Any interval of the current present includes sanction: to accept or not to
Thus, the briefly described parameters for the
accept the given contents. This mechanism is far from
description of SR phenomena point to similar func
perfect and often selects false and absurd concepts as
tional mechanisms of the brain neurodynamic organi
true and correct. However, all true ideas and theories
zation, which should serve as the subject and goal of
originated and started off in the minds of individuals;
neuroscientific studies when solving the problems of
they were first sanctioned by the individual; and only
brain decoding. Registering the main dynamic dimen
with time were they acknowledged at the level of inter
sions of the multidimensional SR structure, they can
15 personal and suprapersonal relations. The presence of
be used for building more sophisticated computer
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
models of code representations of SR phenomena in
very different in their physical properties. Here we
the brain and, thus, for understanding the dynamic
have a special type of causality, information causality.
self organizing structure that functionally predeter
Its specifics, compared to physical causality, is deter
mines the existence of consciousness.
mined by the invariance principle. A type of informa
On the basis of the principle of information invari
tion causality is psychic causality. The notion of psy
ance in relation to the physical properties of its
chic causality also covers unconsciously produced
medium and, consequently, the principle of system
actions. However, despite the very close relationbetween the conscious and the unconscious levels of
17 isofunctionalism, substantiated by A. Turing and
meaning that one and the same function or complex of
the psyche, we are first of all interested in actions
functions can be reproduced on substrates different in
taken consciously, initiated by existing SR phenom
their physical (chemical) properties, we may make a
ena. Therefore, in this case, it is better to use the
conclusion about the theoretical conceivability of SR
notion of mental causality as a subtype of information
reproduction on other media. It is possible to create
causality (under the condition that the scope of the
elements (different from neural ones in their physico
notion “mental” is limited to SR phenomena).
chemical and morphological properties) and a
It is important to stress that the notion of informa
dynamic self organizing system built from them that
tion causality does not contradict the notion of physi
will be able to reproduce information processes, that
cal causality, which fully preserves its meaning even if
is, supply the control center of this system with infor
it does not pretend to the role of a universal tool of
mation in pure form, provide for the ability to oper
explanation of all phenomena of reality, for instance,
ated it, and thus constitute reflexive and bimodal
an explanation of the causes of an economic crisis or
mechanisms of information processing, characteristic
the causes of a self sacrificing act. As for psychic cau
of our Ego. The convergent development of nano ,
sality, it gives a scientifically justified answer to the
bio , information, and cognitive technologies is mov
classical question of the effect of the mental on the
ing increasingly in this direction, creating new compo
physical. Yet here the reciprocal question arises: the
nents and ways of self organization, opening up pros
effect of the physical on the mental. Even if we disre
pects for the formation of artificial intelligence and for
gard cases in which strong mechanical, temperature,
the transformation of human nature. In recent years,
radiation, etc., effects destroy brain code structures
these problems, which are of strategic and fundamen
and biological organization, physical causes may serve
tal importance for the future of the earth’s civilization,
to explain the significant properties of the mental,
have become a topic of serious discussion by promi
when we are speaking about direct sensory reflections
nent scientists and philosophers. Numerous confer
(sensations, etc.); or such effects on code structures
ences, symposia, and discussions have been dedicated
that lead to mutations; or electromagnetic, chemical,
to them. An important event was the recent Global
and other effects on the brain. However, in all these
Future 2045 International Congress, held in Moscow
examples, physical causes are often mediated by infor
and attended by representatives of science from vari
mation processes and, consequently, information
causes. Thus, the notion of information causalitybroadens significantly the theoretical tools of scientific
explanation and becomes necessary if self organizing
systems (biological, social, and technical in a number
of relations) become the subject of research. Theoretical and empirical justifications of information causal
An SR phenomenon as information based on the
ity differ significantly from the principles of describing
existing code dependency is the cause of external or
internal corporal changes and personal complexactions and predetermines their result. In addition,
Together with the capability to have information “in
information is sort of “isolated” in the continuum of
pure form,” we were given the capability to operate it in
physical interactions (as long as the code structure of
a very wide range. This expresses the activity of subjec
a given self organizing system is preserved). When I
tive reality. It includes voluntary actions that can be
say to a person, “Come up to me!,” and the person
taken not only purely mentally but also communica
fulfills this action, it is generated and determined not
tively and practically. Analysis of the structure of a vol
by the physical properties of the words that I pro
untary action points to a significant role in it of the
nounced but by the information expressed in them,
areflexic level and registers, which ensure stable reac 3
its semantic and pragmatic characteristics. The phys
tions and human behavior. However, the initiator and
ical properties of the information medium in them
regulator of this action is always a certain SR phenom
selves do not explain the resulting effect, although
enon. Therefore, a voluntary action is graphic evidence
they necessarily participate in the act of determina
of mental causality. Let us take an example. I want to
tion. This is proved by the fact that I can generate the
turn on a desk lamp and do so by bushing a button. In
same effect by other words and, in general, by signals
this case, the mental cause in the form of my desire rep
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
resents an action program and launches a chain of code
and target vectors. The Ego system embodies personal
transformations, well worked out in phylogenesis and
features of an individual and the ability to express
ontogenesis (serial and parallel switching on of code
one’s will. To this end, a question arises about the free
programs of arm movements and other associated cor
dom of will and its compatibility with the determina
poral changes, as well as code programs of energy sup
port for the whole complex of actions that achieve the
Note that those who reject the freedom of will cross
result). An SR phenomenon with a higher value rank
out themselves as personalities and divest themselves
ing can have a more powerful causal effect on corporal
of any responsibility for their actions, including the
18 processes. Well known are somatic effects of a “super
statement that there is no freedom of will. Everyone of
valuable idea” and many similar manifestations of the
us is sure that, in many cases, one can, at one’s discre
extraordinary power of psychic causality and mental
tion and will, choose and operate these or those con
control. We may refer to the experience of the Great
cepts, thoughts, intentional vectors, etc., although SR
Patriotic War, many striking examples of fortitude and
comprises classes of phenomena that are overpower
will, allowing outstanding feats for the love of the
ingly imposed on us from outside or from within and
Motherland, duty, honor, and justice.
resist or partially yield to control, often with great dif
Mental causality means not only mental effects on
ficulty (pain, emotions, etc.). Nevertheless, our Ego
the corporal but also mental effects on the mental. The
can control itself and its SR phenomena in a very
fact that one thought can affect and cause another is
broad range and, moreover, expand it.
our omnipresent psychic experience. Despite difficul
If the ability to control voluntarily one’s concepts
ties in the discretization of SR phenomena, compara
and thoughts is the ability to control their brain code
tively simple cases allow us to imagine associative
media, this means the ability to control the energy
transfer from one of them to another as a cause–effect
supply of these operations, including the correspond
relation. For example, visual image А causes in me in
ing biochemical processes; to change action programs
the next moment visual image В. Such mental causal
and, consequently, change their neurodynamic struc
ity or the “mechanism” of posteriority of В from А is
tures; and to expand the contours of psychic regulation
not fundamentally different from processes where an
(including the creation of accesses to vegetative func
SR phenomenon causes a certain corporal change.
tions, as yogis can do when, for example, they volun
Different are only the contours of code transforma
tarily change their heart rhythm). This approach
tions or those subsystems of the brain where they hap
allows a deeper probe into the phenomena of “thought
pen and the character of effector changes (their pres
strain” and “will strain” and ways of intensifying the
ence or absence in external organs).
creative process and of creating new resources of psy
Information А is encapsulated in neurodynamic sys
chic self regulation, not only functional but also ethi
tem Х, and В, correspondingly, is in neurodynamic sys
cal. In other words, we are capable of constantly
tem Y. The transformation of А to В is the transforma
expanding the range of abilities to control our brain
tion of Х to Y. If I can do it of my own volition, this
neurodynamics (with all its desirable and maybe
means that I can operate and control these brain neuro
dynamic systems. Controlling the phenomena of one’s
Yet the human ability to control one’s brain neuro
own subjective reality and one’s own thoughts is control
dynamics voluntarily means that the Ego system of the
of the corresponding brain code structures. Everyone of
brain is a self organizing and self controlling system.
us of one’s own volition constantly controls various
Consequently, a freedom of will act (in terms of the
classes of the neurodynamic systems of one’s own
choice made, as well as in terms of generating an inter
brain, although one does not feel this and does not even
nal effort to achieve a goal, including energy support for
suspect, as a rule, of such ability of one’s Ego.
the action) is an act of self determination. This means
Yet what is our Ego in terms of neuroscience?
that the notion of determination must be taken in the
According to recent research, the Ego is represented in
sense of not only external but also internal determina
the brain as a special structural–functional subsystem,
tion, set by programs of the self organizing Ego systemand the brain in general. This eliminates the thesis of
19 which is called the Ego system of the brain (or Self
hood). It includes genetic and biographical levels of
incompatibility of the notions of the freedom of will and
stable properties of an individual and comprises the
determinism of brain processes. These issues are of fun
highest personal level of brain self organization and
damental importance for brain decoding, because the
control, which forms, in turn, the conscious–uncon
latter also represents self organizing systems, i.e., func
scious contour of psychic processes [19, 20]. This is
tional elements of the Ego system of the brain.
the level where code transformations take place that
In the context of the problems of psychic causality
represent our Ego and information in pure form (i.e.,
and the freedom of will, we often find a sacramental
as SR) and ensure the Ego’s activity as voluntary
question that symbolizes an explanatory deadlock:
actions and the Ego’s ability for self organization, sup
how can the mental (an SR phenomenon) affect the
20 port of its identity, and implementation of mindsets
brain if the brain generates it? In terms of the informa
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion approach, the answer is simple. The mental, by all
efficiency was reached due to the emergence of psy
means, affects the brain in the sense that the activated
chic control in those metazoans that moved actively
code neurodynamic system, which carries informa
and stayed in constantly changing conditions. There
tion in “pure form” (the mental) to a person, is capa
fore, the psyche does not develop in organisms with
ble of affecting other code structures of the brain,
minimal motor activity and fixed to one place, for
including those that implement information processes
21 at the prepsychic level and thus affect various levels of
Evolution demonstrates a very close relation
brain activity, including blood circulation processes
between motor and psychic functions. Hence, there is
and biochemical and electric changes in individual
an obvious causal ability of the mental (information)
neurons and synaptic networks. This happens some
to perform external actions directly and instanta
times in an especially strong and pronounced form, for
neously and to control the organs of movement. By
example, if a happy thought comes unexpectedly. This
contrast, control of internal organs and processes
18 is an inspiration and a supervaluable mental state,
appears to be automatic at the unconscious and
which is accompanied by an emotional surge and bois
prepsychic levels. At the same time, there is constant 21
terous productive activity (mental or practical). Initi
“trimming” of different parameters of local and inte
ated at the level of the Ego system, it produces func
gral changes (energy based and informational) in the
tional changes in other brain subsystems and finally
internal environment of an organism for its efficient
causes strong reactions in a number of internal organs
actions in the external environment.
and in the whole system. Any mental state of an individual is a product of a specific brain activity at the
Psychic control is related to the process of special
level of its Ego system, and, when it occurs, the func
ization of cells and the origin of a nervous system,
tioning of practically all brain subsystems changes sig
which has the functions of programming and imple
nificantly (compared to states when the SR state is
menting actions based on analysis and integration of
absent, i.e., during deep sleep or temporary loss of
information that comes from the external and internal
environments. The products of this integration are initially expressed as sensations–emotions and, only atthe subsequent stages, as more complex SR forms
(perceptions, ideas, concepts, thinking operations,
We are left with one issue, probably the most com
etc.). Consequently, the operative mechanisms of SR
plex: the origin of subjective reality. It may be formu
also become more complex. The animal psyche has an
lated in the following way: “What is subjective reality
SR quality that, at higher levels of evolution, acquires
designed for?” or “Why did it originate during biolog
a rather complex structure in animals, including the
ical evolution?” I will try to answer this question
hierarchical centering of SR phenomena, or a certain
briefly from the position of the information and evolu
“selfhood,” which is an evolutionary precondition for 19
tionary approaches, relying on my earlier work [21].
the human Ego system. Therefore, we may say that SRrepresents a specific level of information processes at
The process of the origin of metazoans put forward
the level of the human brain’s Ego system.
a cardinal task whose solution predetermined theirsurvival: to create a new type of control and mainte
In order to shape information as subjective reality,
nance of integrity. After all, the elements of such a self
it is necessary to perform its two stage code conversion
organizing system are cells that also represent self
at the Ego system’s level: information that stays “in the
organizing systems with their quite rigid programs, run
dark” is represented at the first stage, and a natural
and polished by evolution over hundreds of millions of
code of a higher order is formed at the second stage,
22 years. In a multicellular organism, such programs had
thus creating an information phenomenon about
to be agreed with a general organismic program and
information; i.e., information is opened up and made
vice versa. This demanded an optimal measure of cen
relevant for a personality. The SR states of wakeful
tralization and autonomy of control contours, a mea
ness, attention, circumspection, constant readiness
sure capable of ensuring the preservation and strength
for immediate actions, search for necessary means of
ening of the integrity of a complex living system in its
subsistence, probing the environment for potential
incessant interactions with the external environment.
dangers, and dispatching vital functions initiate a new
We mean a measure of control centralization that does
stirring activity of a living system. Subjective reality,
not violate the fundamental programs of individual
which is created by the subsystem of natural codes of
cells and such a measure of autonomy of their function
the second order within the Ego system, is virtual real
that does not hinder but contributes to their consen
ity or the initial basic form that, during anthropogene 23
sual participation in the implementation of programs
sis, during the emergence of language, and during
that are fundamental for an integral organism.
social development, acquires new forms of external
Together with control centralization, it demanded the
objectivation. Information processing in such a code
efficiency of its operation and a high speed of informa
structure, i.e., at the virtual level, is operationally effi
tion transfer. This measure of centralization and high
cient, and it can be performed independently from
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
external effector functions, which turn on only after an
reflect did not matter for the adequate behavior and
action program has been formed and sanctioned.
survival of an organism. These required only the information itself and the ability to use it for the purposes of
The development of the psyche initiated growth in
control. So, these functions developed during evolu
24 the roundaboutness and multidimensionality of infor
tion and anthropogenesis. Humans, as they practiced 23
mation about information production. The range of
all their social and life activities, had no need either for
virtual operations expands, making the generalization
information about the brain medium of the informa
of experience more efficient; developing the ability of
tion that they operated. However, the situation has
“delayed actions” and virtual trial actions, the ability
changed recently. After decoding the genetic code, the
of forecasting, and the ability of building models of a
decoding of brain codes of psychic phenomena (pri
probable future; creating an ever higher level of stir
marily SR phenomena) was put on the agenda, and
ring activity; and multiplying its degrees of freedom.
this problem is being developed successfully, as was
In humans, unlike in animals, information processes
mentioned above. There are grounds to believe that
acquire new essential features thanks to the emergence
objectives related to this problem are caused by soci
and development of language. This primarily concerns
etal needs and that successes in meeting them mark
an additional and very productive level of coding and
the beginning of a new stage of human development
decoding, created by the language system, which qual
itatively improves the analytical and synthetic abilities
25 of information operation and develops metarepresen
Even elementary analysis shows that the ability of a
self organizing system to display an informationmedium and to control this medium broadens
Why is information about an active agent not just
immensely the sphere of its cognitive and transforming
represented but felt as SR? This occurs because feel
activities and, most importantly, the abilities of self
ings in the form of subjective reality combine the func
transformation. In this context, we may speak about
tions of reflection and control, thus being a way of rep
new opportunities to transform those genetically pre
19 resenting and actualizing information for Selfhood, an
determined properties of human nature and con
easy quick, and, primarily, arbitrary way that allows us
sciousness that serve as the initial cause of the ever
to operate information that unveils in its pure form
deepening environmental crisis and other global prob
(i.e., at the level of virtual reality). The question of how
lems of human civilization, primarily, the irrepressible
or by which mechanisms information processes in the
individual consumer intention and aggressiveness to
brain create subjective reality lies within the compe
other humans (and thus to oneself). If these properties
tence of modern neuroscience. Studies show that a
are not changed, an anthropological disaster will await
condition for the emergence of a subjective feeling is a
us. It is understood that there are other theoretically
circular process and information synthesis in certain
conceivable options of overcoming the current crisis of
brain structures (works by A.M. Ivanitskii, V.Ya. Ser
our civilization and rising to a new stage of develop
gin, M. Arbib and G. Rizzolatti, G. Edelman,
ment, but they all depend on civilizational self trans
A. Humphrey, etc.). Subjective feelings in the form of
formations that imply change in the consciousness of
sensations arise during comparison and synthesis on
a social individual. The latter appears to depend one
the neurons of the projection cortex of two types of
way or another on the results of the elaboration of the
information: sensory (about the physical parameters
of a stimulus) and data (retrieved from the memory)about the significance of the signal. Information synthesis is assured by the mechanism of impulse return to
initial projection locations after a response from brain
This work was supported by the Russian Founda
structures that are responsible for the memory and
tion for Basic Research, project no. 11 06 00133a.
motivation. A feeling is an act of “information synthesis” within the above cycle [22]; it occurs as the resultof a high frequency cyclic process of identification
1. “The Information Approach in an Interdisciplinary
Perspective (Materials of a Roundtable),” Vopr. Filos.,
Thus, any SR phenomenon carries simultaneously
information about a certain object and information
2. F. Crick, What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scien
about this information (at least, as a feeling that it
tific Discovery (Basic Books, New York, 1988; Inst.
belongs to me or to my Ego). As for the elimination of
the reflection of the brain medium of information, it is
3. D. I. Dubrovskii, “Decoding Codes: Methodological
inherent in any psychic activity. The ability to reflect
Aspects of the Problem,” Vopr. Filos., No. 11 (1979).
neither originated nor developed during evolution
4. D. I. Dubrovskii, “The Problem of a Neurodynamic
because of the invariance principle. Since the same
Code of Psychic Phenomena (Some Philosophical
information can be carried and transferred by media
Aspects and Social Perspectives),” Vopr. Filos., No. 6
that differ in their properties, the medium’s ability to
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
5. D. I. Dubrovskii, Information, Consciousness, the Brain
15. A. M. Ivanitskii, “The Problem of Consciousness and
(Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, 1980) [in Russian].
Brain Philosophy,” in The Problem of Consciousness in
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16. K. V. Anokhin, “The Brain and Memory: The Biology
of Traces of Time Past,” Her. Russ. Acad. Sci. 80 (3),
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from Human Brain Activity using a Combination of
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Multiscale Local Image Decoders,” Neuron 60 (5), Reality, 2nd ed. (Kanon+, Moscow, 2002) [in Russian].
18. D. I. Dubrovskii, “The Gnoseology of Subjective Real
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ity (on Problem Statement),” Epistemologiya Filos.
Experience from Brain Activity Evoked by Natural
Movies,” Current Biol. 21, 1641 (2011).
19. D. P. Matyushkin, “The Possible Neurophysiological
9. A. M. Ivanitskii, “’Brain Reading’: Achievements,
Basis of the Inner Self,” Human Physiol. 33 (6), 701
Prospects, and Ethical Problems,” Zh. Vyssh. Nervnoi
20. D. P. Matyushkin, The Problem of the Nature of Human
10. D. I. Dubrovskii, Psychic Phenomena and the Brain:Inner Ego (Slovo, Moscow, 2003) [in Russian]. Philosophical Analysis of the Problem in Relation to Cer
21. D. I. Dubrovskii, “What Subjective Reality Is, or Why
tain Urgent Tasks of Neurophysiology, Psychology, and
Information Processes Are No Go in the Dark (an
Cybernetics (Nauka, Moscow, 1971) [in Russian].
Answer to D. Chalmers),” Vopr. Filos., No. 3 (2007).
11. N. P. Bekhtereva, P. V. Bundzen, and Yu. L. Gogolitsyn,
22. A. M. Ivanitskii, “Natural Sciences and the Problem of
Cerebral Codes of Psychics (Nauka, Leningrad, 1977).
Consciousness,” Vestn. Ross. Akad. Nauk, No. 8(2004).
12. N. P. Dubinin, “Inheritance Biological and Social,”
23. V. Ya. Sergin, “Self Identification and Sensori Motor
Rehearsal As Key Mechanism of Consciousness,” Int.
13. M. Mishkin, “Cerebral Memory Circuits,” in Exploring
J. Computing Anticipatory Systems, No. 4 (1999). Brain Functions: Models in Neuroscience, Ed. by
24. V. Ya. Sergin, Psychophysiological Mechanisms of Con
T. A. Poggio and D. A. Glaser (John Wiley & Sons,
sciousness: The Hypothesis of Self Identification andSensori Motor Rehearsal,” in The Problem of Con
14. D. J. Kravitz, K. S. Saleem, C. I. Baker, and M. Mish
sciousness in Philosophy and Science, Ed. by
kin, “A New Neural Framework for Visuospatial Pro
D. I. Dubrovskii (Kanon+, Moscow, 2009) [in Rus
cessing,” Nature Rev. Neurosci, No. 12 (2011).
SPELL: 1. tideway, 2. conations, 3. areflexic, 4. psychical, 5. intersubjective, 6. psychophysical, 7.
psycholinguistics, 8. metatheoretical, 9. preprogrammed, 10. autocerebroscope, 11. closedness, 12. testee, 13. deliverables, 14. mindset, 15. suprapersonal, 16. nisus, 17. isofunctionalism, 18. supervaluable, 19. Selfhood, 20. mindsets, 21. prepsychic, 22. multicellular, 23. anthropogenesis, 24. roundaboutness, 25. metarepresentation
HERALD OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
remote from the final production of the inferential belief (that there is a fire on thehill) for its falsity to infect the latter. Whatever the details may be, the fact doesseem to be that Gan˙ges´a’s theoretical precommitments lead him to an extremelycounterintuitive stance with respect to the ba¯spa¯numa¯na. Certainly, he appears tolack anything like Mandanamis´ra’s elaborate philos
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