ROUNDWORMS → Benzimidazoles (Mebendazole and Albendazole)
EXCEPT Strongyloides → Ivermectin
FILARIAL WORMS→ Ivermectin TAPEWORMS → Praziquantel for adultworm stages Albendazole for cysticercosis FLUKES → Praziquantel
May need to use Bithionol for some Fasciola infections
LUMINAL (GI, GU) PROTOZOA → Metronidazole
T. cruzi → Nifurtimox + Benznidazole T. brucei spp. → Melarsoprol : begin treatment early in the disease course
Eflornithine : may be used for the CNS phase
TOXOPLASMA → Pyamethamine + Sulfamethoxazole or Metronidazole MALARIA PROPYLAXIS → Chloroquine if traveling to areas with endemic chloroquine-sensitive
strains Mefloquine if traveling to areas with chloroquine resistance Doxycyline if traveling to regions with Mefloquine resistance Chlorquanide (U.K only) Primaquine to clear latent hepatic infection
ACUTE MALARIA → Chloroquine for P. ovale and P. malariae, as well as sensitive strains of P. Quinine + Doxycycline for acute infection with CQ-resistant strains Atovaquone + Chloruanide (Malarone) for acute infections
with CQ-resistant strains High dose Mefliquone ANTI-HELMINTHICS GENERAL STRATEGY Ascaris lumbircoides: mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate + albendazole Hookworm (Necator and Ancylostoma): restore hematologic status; drug therapy equivalent to Ascaris Whipworm (Tricuris): mebendazole, albendazole, axantel pamoate Strongyloides: ivermectin Enterobius: drug therapy equivalent to Ascaris Trichinosis: mebendazole, albendazole effective ONLY against early infection; corticosterioids to suppress reaction to chronic infection Filarial Worms (Wuchereria, Onchocerca): diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin Schistosoma: Praziquantel Clonorchis: Praziquantel Fasciola:Bithionol (available from CDC only) or triclabendazole Taenia saginata: praziquantel 4 mos. Taenia solium: praziquantel treats both adult worm infection and cystercercosis; albendazole treats cystercercosis Diphyllobothrium: praziquantel or niclosamide Echinococcus: long-term albendazole + surgical resection ALBENDAZOLE CLASS: Benzimidazole TX: broad spectrum against nematode infections First-line therapy for roundworm, hookworm, pinworm, and whipworm Also effective for cystic echinococcosis and Taenia solium cystercercosis MECH: inhibits polymerization of worm β-tubulin PHARM: The active metabolite (albendazole sulfoxide) has a high volume of distribution → increased activity against deeply encysted organisms Treatment usually only requires single dose AR: low systemic toxicity; teratogenicity CI: pregnant women, cirrhosis MEBENDAZOLE CLASS: Benzimidazole TX: broad spectrum against nematode infections First-line therapy for roundworm, hookworm, and whipworm MECH: inhibits polymerization of worm β-tubulin PHARM: Low oral biovailability due to non-absorption + first-pass metabolism AR: low systemic toxicity; teratogenicity CI: pregnancy women and peds < 2 yrs IVERMECTIN CLASS: Avermectin TX: DOC for treatment of onchocerciasis Effective against filarial worm infections (EXCECPT Loa Loa) Also covers most nematodes (Strongyloides, Ascaris, whipworm, pinworm) MECH: Increased conductance of Cl- through glutamate channels in nematodes only → tonic paralysis of worm pharyngeal muscles Not active against filarial stages Cidal against developing larvae Inhibits emergence of microfilariae from adult uterus → lowers organism load in cutaneous vessels → reduce vector TMX of Onchocerca (black Tsetse fly) PHARM: Long half-life due to slow clearance, large Vd, and enterohepatic circulation Treatment usually only requires single-dose AR: low systemic toxicity; CNS toxicity may develop if there is damage to BBB CI: pregnant women, cirrhosis PRAZIQUANTEL TX: DOC for cestode and trematode infections First-line therapy for schistosomiasis Fluke infections require higher dosages; tapeworm infections may be eradicated with a single dose MECH: Low-dose: increases worm muscular activity → spastic paralysis
High-dose: disruption of tegument → calcium influx → blebbing →
PHARM: Inactivated by hepatic metabolism AR: abdominal distress, headache, dizziness, sedation CI: pregnant women ANTI-PROTOZOAN AGENTS (NON-MALARIA) GENERAL STRATEGY Entamoeba histolytica: metronidazole is active against luminal and systemic infection Trcihomonas: metronidazole
Giardia: metronidazole or tinidazole Cyclospora and Isospora : TMP-Sulfa
T. cruzi: acute infection may be treated (limited efficacy) with nifertimox and benznidazole; long-term therapy limited by significant toxicity T. brucei : melasoprol for early infection, eflornathine for CNS disease Leishmania spp. : pentavalent antimony Toxoplasma: pyrimethamin + sulfadiazine; spiramycin if pregnant; metronidazole
METRONIDAZOLE TX: DOC for Trichomonas vaginitis, Giardia, and ALL forms of symptomatic amebiasis MECH: anaerobic bacteria + liver result in reduction of the nitro group, forming a highly reactive radical → oxidative damage to DNA and proteins PHARM: good distribution AR: headache, dry mouth, metallic taste, anorexia, NVD, disulfuram-like reaction with EtOH CI: pregnant women in third trimester ANTI-MALARIA AGENTS GENERAL STRATEGY
Blood Szhizonticides: these agents terminate the circulating erythrocyte stage (clinical disease) of malaria Thus, they may be used for treatment of active disease and for chemoprophylaxis
Tissue Schizonticides: these agnets act within hepatocytes to prevent the initial intra-hepatic schizogony that precedes active malarial disease Thus, the primary role of these drugs is in prophylaxis
Gametocides and Sporontocides: activity against the sexual stages
Not used clinically Could theoretically be active within infected mosquitoes (sporontocides) or prevent TMX of gametes during blood meal (gametocides)
QUININE CLASS: Blood schizonticide; quinolone ring derivative TX: The DOC for chloroquine-resistant strains of malaria; no longer in widespread use MECH: Weak base → concentrates in food vacuole of Plasmodium → inhibits polymerization of heme → increased toxicity to the organism
Free Heme generates ROSs (Fenton reaction)
PHARM: nearly complete oral absorption AR
Tinnitus, headaches, nausea, blurred vision
Hypersensitivity: flushing, pruritis, hemolysis May develop ‘Balckwater Fever’ → massive intravascular hemolysis resulting in hemoglobinemia and renal failure Hypoglycemia due to increased insulin secretion Hypotonia due to decreased NMJ excitability
CHLOROQUINE CLASS: Blood schizonticide; quinolone ring derivative TX: Used to terminate clinical malaria and for prophylaxis (suppressive) MECH: Equivalent to QUININE PHARM: high Vd, so dosing must be carefully titrated AR: High doses cause hypotension, arrhythmias > 5 g: may be lethal CI: hepatic disease, G6PDH deficiency (will cause brisk hemolysis) MEFLOQUINE CLASS: Blood schizonticide; quinolone ring derivative TX: DOC for prophylaxis in areas in which malaria is highly chloroquine-resistant (This may be accomplished with weekly low doses) High doses may be sued to treat CQ-resistant clinical disease MECH: concentrates in food vacuoles but DOES NOT inhibit heme polymerizationl instead, causes osmotic swelling RES: resistance is rapidly evolving; usually associated with MDR malaria PHARM: slow and incomplete absorption AR: nausea, lassitude, dizziness, fatigue, seizures, psychosis CI: pregnant women, Hx of psychosis PRIMAQUINE CLASS: Tissue Schizonticide; quinolone ring derivative TX: DOC for clearance of latent hepatic schizonts (P. vivax and P. ovale) Weak activity against P. falciparum hepatic schizonts Significant gametocidal activity against all types of malaria MECH: unknown; may be converted to an oxidative metabolite RES: some resistance seen in P. vivax PHARM: complete absorption with high Vd; rapidly converted to weak metabolites AR: hypotension (IM), methemoglobinemia CI: G6PDH deficiency CHLORGUANIDE (PROGUANIL) CLASS: Tissue Schizonticide; quinolone ring derivative TX: Malaria prophylaxis at the tissue schizont level Also used to terminate clinical diseasewith co-formulated with atovaquone (Malarone) MECH: converted to CYCLOGUANIL → inhibits DHFR and parasitic DNA synthesis RES: due to mutation at the drug binding site, decreasing affinity PHARM: significant ethnic variation in generation of the active metabolite (CYP2C conversion) AR: no significant toxicity ATOVAQUONE CLASS: Hydroxynapthoquinone TX: combined with Chlorquanide (as Malarone) for treatment of acute chloroquine-resistant malaria MECH: inhibits electron transport (ubiquinone analog) PHARM: very low oral bioavailability; increased absorption with fatty meal AR: maculopapular rash, fever, NVD, headache
REVIEW ARTICLE Swertia chirayita – an overview P. Joshi1,* and V. Dhawan2 1TERI School of Advanced Studies and 2The Energy and Resources Institute, Darbari Seth Block, Habitat Place, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India widespread use. Chirata is called Anaryatikta, Ardhatikta, Swertia chirayita is a medicinal plant indigenous to Bhunimba, Chiratika, Chiratitka, Haima, Jva
MEN'S HEALTH MEN'S HEALTH TACKLING THE TACKLING THE INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES MEN'S HEALTH TACKLING THE INEQUALITIES Report of a one-day multidisciplinary conference held on Tuesday 11 December 2001 at the Royal College of Physicians, Regent’s Park, London by kind permission of the treasurer Tackling men’s health inequalities: what can the government do